Puberty Programming and Lifetime Risk of Reproductive Cancers
Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
The period of puberty is an important stage of development during which numerous hormone-driven processes take place, contributing to the establishment of a stable reproductive system and determining its ability to function properly in the future. There is an increasing body of evidence indicating that the age at which a child undergoes puberty, hormonal signaling during this process, the nutritional and environmental conditions in which children grow up, and psychosocial stress exert their effects on the biological programming of reproductive organs, ultimately influencing the likelihood of developing reproductive cancers, including breast, ovarian, endometrial, cervical, prostate, and testicular cancer. Pubertal age could impact the period of exposure to sex hormones, affect the regulation of the hypothalamus–pituitary–gonads axis, and create epigenetic modifications that will lead to tumor formation in the future. Additionally, some environmental causes, such as exposure to endocrine disruptors, obesity, inflammation, and modifications in behaviour, have been known to be involved in cancer onset through the disruption of hormone levels and alterations in signal transduction. Apart from all these determinants of cancer discussed above, variation in nutrition, socioeconomic status, health care, and exposure to the environment are among some other determinants that lead to such disparity in the burden of reproductive cancers across the world. This review highlights the link between puberty and higher chances of reproductive cancers. Specifically, hormone-linked aspects, epigenetic effects, metabolic problems, and environmental factors are highlighted in relation to the increased risk of reproductive cancers associated with puberty. Apart from all these, other areas of discussion include biomarkers, prevention strategies, and translational approaches for identifying risks and preventing cancers.
Author Affiliations
- 1 Research Scholar, School of Biotechnology, IFTM University, Moradabad-244102, Uttar Pradesh, India.
- 2 Pharmacy Academy, Faculty of Pharmacy, IFTM University, Moradabad-244102, Uttar Pradesh, India.
- 3 School of Pharmacy & Technology Management, SVKM NMIMS Global University, Dhule, Maharashtra-424001, India.