Menopause and Carcinogenesis
Corresponding author: [email protected]
Abstract
Menopause is a natural biological process in which ovarian function permanently stops, and the production of estrogen and progesterone decreases. According to recent research, menopause has been strongly linked to carcinogenesis—that is, cancer development—specifically regarding hormone-dependent cancers such as breast cancer, ovarian cancer, endometrial cancer, and colorectal cancer. Postmenopausal stages—characterized by factors such as hormonal imbalance, oxidative stress, chronic inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, DNA damage, and immune dysregulation—promote the initiation and progression of cancer. Estrogen receptor signaling pathways, genomic instability, telomere shortening, apoptosis resistance, cell cycle dysregulation, reactive oxygen species generation and inflammatory cytokines such as TNF alpha and interleukin also have a role in menopause associated carcinogenesis. For instance, considering obesity-associated carcinogenesis—where adipose tissue serves as a source of excess estrogen production through aromatase enzyme activity—it increases the risk of breast and endometrial cancers. Insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome, and altered lipid metabolism also accelerate tumor growth and metastasis. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals—such as Bisphenol A, phthalates, pesticides, dioxins, and heavy metals—exhibit carcinogenic effects. These chemicals disrupt hormonal homeostasis and, by inducing epigenetic modifications, can accelerate reproductive aging and enhance tumorigenesis. From a clinical perspective, Hormone Replacement Therapy, selective estrogen receptor modulators, Aromatase Inhibitors, Immunotherapy, and targeted therapies play a role in evaluating the risk associated with cancer. Furthermore, molecular biomarkers, precision medicine, liquid biopsy, and AI can be utilized for early diagnosis. Overall, this chapter provides an updated and multidisciplinary overview of menopause-associated carcinogenesis, clarifying concepts related to endocrinology, toxicology, molecular biology, and pharmacology. Its objectives are to support future research and to develop safer, more effective, and personalized cancer prevention and therapeutic strategies for women.
Author Affiliations
- 1 Student of M.Pharmacy (Pharmacology), Shiva Institute of Pharmacy, Bilaspur, Himachal Pradesh, India.